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544 lines
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544 lines
24 KiB
:mod:`urllib` --- Open arbitrary resources by URL
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=================================================
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.. module:: urllib
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:synopsis: Open an arbitrary network resource by URL (requires sockets).
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.. note::
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The :mod:`urllib` module has been split into parts and renamed in
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Python 3 to :mod:`urllib.request`, :mod:`urllib.parse`,
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and :mod:`urllib.error`. The :term:`2to3` tool will automatically adapt
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imports when converting your sources to Python 3.
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Also note that the :func:`urllib.request.urlopen` function in Python 3 is
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equivalent to :func:`urllib2.urlopen` and that :func:`urllib.urlopen` has
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been removed.
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.. index::
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single: WWW
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single: World Wide Web
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single: URL
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This module provides a high-level interface for fetching data across the World
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Wide Web. In particular, the :func:`urlopen` function is similar to the
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built-in function :func:`open`, but accepts Universal Resource Locators (URLs)
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instead of filenames. Some restrictions apply --- it can only open URLs for
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reading, and no seek operations are available.
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.. seealso::
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The `Requests package <http://docs.python-requests.org/>`_
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is recommended for a higher-level HTTP client interface.
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.. versionchanged:: 2.7.9
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For HTTPS URIs, :mod:`urllib` performs all the neccessary certificate and hostname checks by default.
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.. warning::
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For Python versions earlier than 2.7.9, urllib does not attempt to validate the server certificates of HTTPS URIs. Use at your own risk!
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High-level interface
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--------------------
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.. function:: urlopen(url[, data[, proxies[, context]]])
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Open a network object denoted by a URL for reading. If the URL does not
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have a scheme identifier, or if it has :file:`file:` as its scheme
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identifier, this opens a local file (without :term:`universal newlines`);
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otherwise it opens a socket to a server somewhere on the network. If the
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connection cannot be made the :exc:`IOError` exception is raised. If all
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went well, a file-like object is returned. This supports the following
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methods: :meth:`read`, :meth:`readline`, :meth:`readlines`, :meth:`fileno`,
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:meth:`close`, :meth:`info`, :meth:`getcode` and :meth:`geturl`. It also
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has proper support for the :term:`iterator` protocol. One caveat: the
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:meth:`read` method, if the size argument is omitted or negative, may not
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read until the end of the data stream; there is no good way to determine
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that the entire stream from a socket has been read in the general case.
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Except for the :meth:`info`, :meth:`getcode` and :meth:`geturl` methods,
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these methods have the same interface as for file objects --- see section
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:ref:`bltin-file-objects` in this manual. (It is not a built-in file object,
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however, so it can't be used at those few places where a true built-in file
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object is required.)
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.. index:: module: mimetools
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The :meth:`info` method returns an instance of the class
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:class:`mimetools.Message` containing meta-information associated with the
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URL. When the method is HTTP, these headers are those returned by the server
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at the head of the retrieved HTML page (including Content-Length and
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Content-Type). When the method is FTP, a Content-Length header will be
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present if (as is now usual) the server passed back a file length in response
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to the FTP retrieval request. A Content-Type header will be present if the
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MIME type can be guessed. When the method is local-file, returned headers
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will include a Date representing the file's last-modified time, a
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Content-Length giving file size, and a Content-Type containing a guess at the
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file's type. See also the description of the :mod:`mimetools` module.
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The :meth:`geturl` method returns the real URL of the page. In some cases, the
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HTTP server redirects a client to another URL. The :func:`urlopen` function
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handles this transparently, but in some cases the caller needs to know which URL
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the client was redirected to. The :meth:`geturl` method can be used to get at
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this redirected URL.
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The :meth:`getcode` method returns the HTTP status code that was sent with the
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response, or ``None`` if the URL is no HTTP URL.
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If the *url* uses the :file:`http:` scheme identifier, the optional *data*
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argument may be given to specify a ``POST`` request (normally the request type
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is ``GET``). The *data* argument must be in standard
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:mimetype:`application/x-www-form-urlencoded` format; see the :func:`urlencode`
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function below.
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The :func:`urlopen` function works transparently with proxies which do not
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require authentication. In a Unix or Windows environment, set the
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:envvar:`http_proxy`, or :envvar:`ftp_proxy` environment variables to a URL that
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identifies the proxy server before starting the Python interpreter. For example
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(the ``'%'`` is the command prompt)::
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% http_proxy="http://www.someproxy.com:3128"
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% export http_proxy
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% python
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...
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The :envvar:`no_proxy` environment variable can be used to specify hosts which
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shouldn't be reached via proxy; if set, it should be a comma-separated list
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of hostname suffixes, optionally with ``:port`` appended, for example
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``cern.ch,ncsa.uiuc.edu,some.host:8080``.
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In a Windows environment, if no proxy environment variables are set, proxy
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settings are obtained from the registry's Internet Settings section.
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.. index:: single: Internet Config
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In a Mac OS X environment, :func:`urlopen` will retrieve proxy information
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from the OS X System Configuration Framework, which can be managed with
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Network System Preferences panel.
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Alternatively, the optional *proxies* argument may be used to explicitly specify
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proxies. It must be a dictionary mapping scheme names to proxy URLs, where an
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empty dictionary causes no proxies to be used, and ``None`` (the default value)
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causes environmental proxy settings to be used as discussed above. For
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example::
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# Use http://www.someproxy.com:3128 for HTTP proxying
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proxies = {'http': 'http://www.someproxy.com:3128'}
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filehandle = urllib.urlopen(some_url, proxies=proxies)
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# Don't use any proxies
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filehandle = urllib.urlopen(some_url, proxies={})
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# Use proxies from environment - both versions are equivalent
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filehandle = urllib.urlopen(some_url, proxies=None)
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filehandle = urllib.urlopen(some_url)
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Proxies which require authentication for use are not currently supported;
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this is considered an implementation limitation.
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The *context* parameter may be set to a :class:`ssl.SSLContext` instance to
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configure the SSL settings that are used if :func:`urlopen` makes a HTTPS
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connection.
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.. versionchanged:: 2.3
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Added the *proxies* support.
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.. versionchanged:: 2.6
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Added :meth:`getcode` to returned object and support for the
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:envvar:`no_proxy` environment variable.
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.. versionchanged:: 2.7.9
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The *context* parameter was added. All the neccessary certificate and hostname checks are done by default.
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.. deprecated:: 2.6
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The :func:`urlopen` function has been removed in Python 3 in favor
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of :func:`urllib2.urlopen`.
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.. function:: urlretrieve(url[, filename[, reporthook[, data]]])
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Copy a network object denoted by a URL to a local file, if necessary. If the URL
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points to a local file, or a valid cached copy of the object exists, the object
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is not copied. Return a tuple ``(filename, headers)`` where *filename* is the
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local file name under which the object can be found, and *headers* is whatever
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the :meth:`info` method of the object returned by :func:`urlopen` returned (for
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a remote object, possibly cached). Exceptions are the same as for
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:func:`urlopen`.
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The second argument, if present, specifies the file location to copy to (if
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absent, the location will be a tempfile with a generated name). The third
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argument, if present, is a callable that will be called once on
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establishment of the network connection and once after each block read
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thereafter. The callable will be passed three arguments; a count of blocks
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transferred so far, a block size in bytes, and the total size of the file. The
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third argument may be ``-1`` on older FTP servers which do not return a file
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size in response to a retrieval request.
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If the *url* uses the :file:`http:` scheme identifier, the optional *data*
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argument may be given to specify a ``POST`` request (normally the request type
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is ``GET``). The *data* argument must in standard
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:mimetype:`application/x-www-form-urlencoded` format; see the :func:`urlencode`
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function below.
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.. versionchanged:: 2.5
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:func:`urlretrieve` will raise :exc:`ContentTooShortError` when it detects that
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the amount of data available was less than the expected amount (which is the
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size reported by a *Content-Length* header). This can occur, for example, when
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the download is interrupted.
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The *Content-Length* is treated as a lower bound: if there's more data to read,
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:func:`urlretrieve` reads more data, but if less data is available, it raises
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the exception.
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You can still retrieve the downloaded data in this case, it is stored in the
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:attr:`content` attribute of the exception instance.
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If no *Content-Length* header was supplied, :func:`urlretrieve` can not check
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the size of the data it has downloaded, and just returns it. In this case you
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just have to assume that the download was successful.
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.. data:: _urlopener
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The public functions :func:`urlopen` and :func:`urlretrieve` create an instance
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of the :class:`FancyURLopener` class and use it to perform their requested
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actions. To override this functionality, programmers can create a subclass of
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:class:`URLopener` or :class:`FancyURLopener`, then assign an instance of that
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class to the ``urllib._urlopener`` variable before calling the desired function.
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For example, applications may want to specify a different
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:mailheader:`User-Agent` header than :class:`URLopener` defines. This can be
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accomplished with the following code::
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import urllib
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class AppURLopener(urllib.FancyURLopener):
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version = "App/1.7"
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urllib._urlopener = AppURLopener()
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.. function:: urlcleanup()
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Clear the cache that may have been built up by previous calls to
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:func:`urlretrieve`.
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Utility functions
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-----------------
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.. function:: quote(string[, safe])
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Replace special characters in *string* using the ``%xx`` escape. Letters,
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digits, and the characters ``'_.-'`` are never quoted. By default, this
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function is intended for quoting the path section of the URL. The optional
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*safe* parameter specifies additional characters that should not be quoted
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--- its default value is ``'/'``.
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Example: ``quote('/~connolly/')`` yields ``'/%7econnolly/'``.
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.. function:: quote_plus(string[, safe])
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Like :func:`quote`, but also replaces spaces by plus signs, as required for
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quoting HTML form values when building up a query string to go into a URL.
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Plus signs in the original string are escaped unless they are included in
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*safe*. It also does not have *safe* default to ``'/'``.
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.. function:: unquote(string)
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Replace ``%xx`` escapes by their single-character equivalent.
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Example: ``unquote('/%7Econnolly/')`` yields ``'/~connolly/'``.
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.. function:: unquote_plus(string)
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Like :func:`unquote`, but also replaces plus signs by spaces, as required for
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unquoting HTML form values.
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.. function:: urlencode(query[, doseq])
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Convert a mapping object or a sequence of two-element tuples to a
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"percent-encoded" string, suitable to pass to :func:`urlopen` above as the
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optional *data* argument. This is useful to pass a dictionary of form
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fields to a ``POST`` request. The resulting string is a series of
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``key=value`` pairs separated by ``'&'`` characters, where both *key* and
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*value* are quoted using :func:`quote_plus` above. When a sequence of
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two-element tuples is used as the *query* argument, the first element of
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each tuple is a key and the second is a value. The value element in itself
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can be a sequence and in that case, if the optional parameter *doseq* is
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evaluates to ``True``, individual ``key=value`` pairs separated by ``'&'`` are
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generated for each element of the value sequence for the key. The order of
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parameters in the encoded string will match the order of parameter tuples in
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the sequence. The :mod:`urlparse` module provides the functions
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:func:`parse_qs` and :func:`parse_qsl` which are used to parse query strings
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into Python data structures.
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.. function:: pathname2url(path)
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Convert the pathname *path* from the local syntax for a path to the form used in
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the path component of a URL. This does not produce a complete URL. The return
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value will already be quoted using the :func:`quote` function.
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.. function:: url2pathname(path)
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Convert the path component *path* from a percent-encoded URL to the local syntax for a
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path. This does not accept a complete URL. This function uses :func:`unquote`
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to decode *path*.
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.. function:: getproxies()
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This helper function returns a dictionary of scheme to proxy server URL
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mappings. It scans the environment for variables named ``<scheme>_proxy``,
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in case insensitive way, for all operating systems first, and when it cannot
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find it, looks for proxy information from Mac OSX System Configuration for
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Mac OS X and Windows Systems Registry for Windows.
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If both lowercase and uppercase environment variables exist (and disagree),
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lowercase is preferred.
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.. note::
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If the environment variable ``REQUEST_METHOD`` is set, which usually
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indicates your script is running in a CGI environment, the environment
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variable ``HTTP_PROXY`` (uppercase ``_PROXY``) will be ignored. This is
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because that variable can be injected by a client using the "Proxy:" HTTP
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header. If you need to use an HTTP proxy in a CGI environment, either use
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``ProxyHandler`` explicitly, or make sure the variable name is in
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lowercase (or at least the ``_proxy`` suffix).
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.. note::
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urllib also exposes certain utility functions like splittype, splithost and
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others parsing URL into various components. But it is recommended to use
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:mod:`urlparse` for parsing URLs rather than using these functions directly.
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Python 3 does not expose these helper functions from :mod:`urllib.parse`
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module.
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URL Opener objects
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------------------
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.. class:: URLopener([proxies[, context[, **x509]]])
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Base class for opening and reading URLs. Unless you need to support opening
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objects using schemes other than :file:`http:`, :file:`ftp:`, or :file:`file:`,
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you probably want to use :class:`FancyURLopener`.
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By default, the :class:`URLopener` class sends a :mailheader:`User-Agent` header
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of ``urllib/VVV``, where *VVV* is the :mod:`urllib` version number.
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Applications can define their own :mailheader:`User-Agent` header by subclassing
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:class:`URLopener` or :class:`FancyURLopener` and setting the class attribute
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:attr:`version` to an appropriate string value in the subclass definition.
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The optional *proxies* parameter should be a dictionary mapping scheme names to
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proxy URLs, where an empty dictionary turns proxies off completely. Its default
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value is ``None``, in which case environmental proxy settings will be used if
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present, as discussed in the definition of :func:`urlopen`, above.
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The *context* parameter may be a :class:`ssl.SSLContext` instance. If given,
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it defines the SSL settings the opener uses to make HTTPS connections.
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Additional keyword parameters, collected in *x509*, may be used for
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authentication of the client when using the :file:`https:` scheme. The keywords
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*key_file* and *cert_file* are supported to provide an SSL key and certificate;
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both are needed to support client authentication.
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:class:`URLopener` objects will raise an :exc:`IOError` exception if the server
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returns an error code.
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.. method:: open(fullurl[, data])
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Open *fullurl* using the appropriate protocol. This method sets up cache and
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proxy information, then calls the appropriate open method with its input
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arguments. If the scheme is not recognized, :meth:`open_unknown` is called.
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The *data* argument has the same meaning as the *data* argument of
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:func:`urlopen`.
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.. method:: open_unknown(fullurl[, data])
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Overridable interface to open unknown URL types.
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.. method:: retrieve(url[, filename[, reporthook[, data]]])
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Retrieves the contents of *url* and places it in *filename*. The return value
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is a tuple consisting of a local filename and either a
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:class:`mimetools.Message` object containing the response headers (for remote
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URLs) or ``None`` (for local URLs). The caller must then open and read the
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contents of *filename*. If *filename* is not given and the URL refers to a
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local file, the input filename is returned. If the URL is non-local and
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*filename* is not given, the filename is the output of :func:`tempfile.mktemp`
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with a suffix that matches the suffix of the last path component of the input
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URL. If *reporthook* is given, it must be a function accepting three numeric
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parameters. It will be called after each chunk of data is read from the
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network. *reporthook* is ignored for local URLs.
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If the *url* uses the :file:`http:` scheme identifier, the optional *data*
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argument may be given to specify a ``POST`` request (normally the request type
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is ``GET``). The *data* argument must in standard
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:mimetype:`application/x-www-form-urlencoded` format; see the :func:`urlencode`
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function below.
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.. attribute:: version
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Variable that specifies the user agent of the opener object. To get
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:mod:`urllib` to tell servers that it is a particular user agent, set this in a
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subclass as a class variable or in the constructor before calling the base
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constructor.
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.. class:: FancyURLopener(...)
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:class:`FancyURLopener` subclasses :class:`URLopener` providing default handling
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for the following HTTP response codes: 301, 302, 303, 307 and 401. For the 30x
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response codes listed above, the :mailheader:`Location` header is used to fetch
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the actual URL. For 401 response codes (authentication required), basic HTTP
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authentication is performed. For the 30x response codes, recursion is bounded
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by the value of the *maxtries* attribute, which defaults to 10.
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For all other response codes, the method :meth:`http_error_default` is called
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which you can override in subclasses to handle the error appropriately.
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.. note::
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According to the letter of :rfc:`2616`, 301 and 302 responses to POST requests
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must not be automatically redirected without confirmation by the user. In
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reality, browsers do allow automatic redirection of these responses, changing
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the POST to a GET, and :mod:`urllib` reproduces this behaviour.
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The parameters to the constructor are the same as those for :class:`URLopener`.
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.. note::
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When performing basic authentication, a :class:`FancyURLopener` instance calls
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its :meth:`prompt_user_passwd` method. The default implementation asks the
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users for the required information on the controlling terminal. A subclass may
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override this method to support more appropriate behavior if needed.
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The :class:`FancyURLopener` class offers one additional method that should be
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overloaded to provide the appropriate behavior:
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.. method:: prompt_user_passwd(host, realm)
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Return information needed to authenticate the user at the given host in the
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specified security realm. The return value should be a tuple, ``(user,
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password)``, which can be used for basic authentication.
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The implementation prompts for this information on the terminal; an application
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should override this method to use an appropriate interaction model in the local
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environment.
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.. exception:: ContentTooShortError(msg[, content])
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This exception is raised when the :func:`urlretrieve` function detects that the
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amount of the downloaded data is less than the expected amount (given by the
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*Content-Length* header). The :attr:`content` attribute stores the downloaded
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(and supposedly truncated) data.
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.. versionadded:: 2.5
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:mod:`urllib` Restrictions
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--------------------------
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.. index::
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pair: HTTP; protocol
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pair: FTP; protocol
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* Currently, only the following protocols are supported: HTTP, (versions 0.9 and
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1.0), FTP, and local files.
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* The caching feature of :func:`urlretrieve` has been disabled until I find the
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time to hack proper processing of Expiration time headers.
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* There should be a function to query whether a particular URL is in the cache.
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* For backward compatibility, if a URL appears to point to a local file but the
|
|
file can't be opened, the URL is re-interpreted using the FTP protocol. This
|
|
can sometimes cause confusing error messages.
|
|
|
|
* The :func:`urlopen` and :func:`urlretrieve` functions can cause arbitrarily
|
|
long delays while waiting for a network connection to be set up. This means
|
|
that it is difficult to build an interactive Web client using these functions
|
|
without using threads.
|
|
|
|
.. index::
|
|
single: HTML
|
|
pair: HTTP; protocol
|
|
module: htmllib
|
|
|
|
* The data returned by :func:`urlopen` or :func:`urlretrieve` is the raw data
|
|
returned by the server. This may be binary data (such as an image), plain text
|
|
or (for example) HTML. The HTTP protocol provides type information in the reply
|
|
header, which can be inspected by looking at the :mailheader:`Content-Type`
|
|
header. If the returned data is HTML, you can use the module :mod:`htmllib` to
|
|
parse it.
|
|
|
|
.. index:: single: FTP
|
|
|
|
* The code handling the FTP protocol cannot differentiate between a file and a
|
|
directory. This can lead to unexpected behavior when attempting to read a URL
|
|
that points to a file that is not accessible. If the URL ends in a ``/``, it is
|
|
assumed to refer to a directory and will be handled accordingly. But if an
|
|
attempt to read a file leads to a 550 error (meaning the URL cannot be found or
|
|
is not accessible, often for permission reasons), then the path is treated as a
|
|
directory in order to handle the case when a directory is specified by a URL but
|
|
the trailing ``/`` has been left off. This can cause misleading results when
|
|
you try to fetch a file whose read permissions make it inaccessible; the FTP
|
|
code will try to read it, fail with a 550 error, and then perform a directory
|
|
listing for the unreadable file. If fine-grained control is needed, consider
|
|
using the :mod:`ftplib` module, subclassing :class:`FancyURLopener`, or changing
|
|
*_urlopener* to meet your needs.
|
|
|
|
* This module does not support the use of proxies which require authentication.
|
|
This may be implemented in the future.
|
|
|
|
.. index:: module: urlparse
|
|
|
|
* Although the :mod:`urllib` module contains (undocumented) routines to parse
|
|
and unparse URL strings, the recommended interface for URL manipulation is in
|
|
module :mod:`urlparse`.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.. _urllib-examples:
|
|
|
|
Examples
|
|
--------
|
|
|
|
Here is an example session that uses the ``GET`` method to retrieve a URL
|
|
containing parameters::
|
|
|
|
>>> import urllib
|
|
>>> params = urllib.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
|
|
>>> f = urllib.urlopen("http://www.musi-cal.com/cgi-bin/query?%s" % params)
|
|
>>> print f.read()
|
|
|
|
The following example uses the ``POST`` method instead::
|
|
|
|
>>> import urllib
|
|
>>> params = urllib.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
|
|
>>> f = urllib.urlopen("http://www.musi-cal.com/cgi-bin/query", params)
|
|
>>> print f.read()
|
|
|
|
The following example uses an explicitly specified HTTP proxy, overriding
|
|
environment settings::
|
|
|
|
>>> import urllib
|
|
>>> proxies = {'http': 'http://proxy.example.com:8080/'}
|
|
>>> opener = urllib.FancyURLopener(proxies)
|
|
>>> f = opener.open("http://www.python.org")
|
|
>>> f.read()
|
|
|
|
The following example uses no proxies at all, overriding environment settings::
|
|
|
|
>>> import urllib
|
|
>>> opener = urllib.FancyURLopener({})
|
|
>>> f = opener.open("http://www.python.org/")
|
|
>>> f.read()
|
|
|